9.3 - The Great Schism

 

Synopsis

The first of the two great fault lines created by the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 finally produced an earthquake in 1054. After the pope unilaterally added a clause to the Nicene Creed, longstanding theological, cultural, and political divisions came to a head and resulted in the first permanent break in the institutional unity of the church (even the mutual excommunication was not canceled until 1965). Although the Great Schism was tragic, we close with a reminder of Latourette's statement that Jesus' influence has advanced in waves--each major wave has set a new high-water mark and each major recession has been less pronounced than its predecessor.

Key Quotes

• "Emperors were almost popes in the East and popes were almost emperors in the West."
• "Theologically, the Filioque wasn’t really that big of a deal, but it’s kind of like when an unhappy married couple goes off on each other at Denny’s. Whatever they’re arguing about…is not what they’re really arguing about."
• "Through the action of the Holy Spirit these differences will be overcome through cleansing of hearts, through regret for historical wrongs, and through an efficacious determination to arrive at a common understanding and expression of the faith of the Apostles and its demands." (Joint Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I)

Reflection Questions 

• When were the seeds of the East/West split sown and how did the rift develop over time?
• If mutual excommunication had happened before, why was the one in 1054 the first to become permanent?
• What were the greatest achievements and failures of the church of the first millennium?

Further Resources

Click the link below to read the joint declaration of Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I at their reconciliation ceremony in Jerusalem on December 7, 1965.

http://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/speeches/1965/documents/hf_p-vi_spe_19651207_common-declaration.html

9.2 - The Age of Feudalism

 Synopsis

After Charlemagne's death, his empire was divided into three parts, each of which was relatively weak. As Viking raiders capitalized on this weakness, bringing the European economy to a virtual standstill, Europeans increasingly turned their lands over to powerful local lords in exchange for protection. This state of affairs, known as feudalism, made the church (which was one of the largest landowners) extremely wealthy, powerful, and corrupt. In 910, a new monastic movement in Cluny, France began advocating structural reforms to clean up the abuses in the church.

Key Quotes

• "The Vikings burned, pillaged, raped, murdered, and enslaved with such impunity that a new prayer was added to the liturgy in church services across Europe: 'From the fury of the Northmen, O Lord, deliver us.'"
• "Under feudalism, European society became divided into three groups: those who produced (serfs), those who protected (knights and lords), and those who prayed (priest and bishops)."
• "William of Aquitaine believed that the two greatest corrupting influences on church leaders were government interference and worldly entanglements. As a result, he wrote his monks at Cluny a charter that gave them complete freedom to choose their own leaders and stipulated that the monastery leader would answer to no one but the pope."

Reflection Questions 

• How did the structure of European society come to resemble a pyramid?
• What made the appointment of bishops such a contentious issue?
• How did the resurgence of the Carolingian Empire under Otto in 962 re-aggravate the two conflicts created by Charlemagne's coronation in 800?

Further Resources

Click the link below to read about "The Time the Church Put a Pope's Corpse on Trial."

https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/568322/pope-corpse-trial

9.1 - The Creation of Christendom

       

Synopsis

After Charles Martel stopped the Muslim advance at Tours in 732, the Western church became increasingly dependent upon the Franks for protection. In 800, Pope Leo III revived the Roman Empire in the west by crowning Charlemagne the Roman emperor. While this created an institution (Holy Roman Empire) that would last for 1,000 years and renewed harmony between the secular and sacred in European life, it also created two invisible fault lines that would eventually generate earthquakes: one between the pope and emperor and the other between East and West.

Key Quotes

• "More than 300 years after the fall of Rome, Pope Leo had revived the Roman Empire in the West."
• "News that Charlemagne had become the new Roman Emperor was not music in the news of the old Roman Emperor. In Constantinople, both Emperor Charlemagne and Pope Leo were seen as overstepping the proper bounds of their authority. Charlemagne’s coronation created a political and theological wedge between East and West that would eventually result in the Great Schism of 1054.."
• "The question of whether the pope or the emperor had supremacy would go unanswered for the next several centuries. ... Since Charlemagne was a powerful leader, the state had the upper hand for as long as he lived. After Charlemagne’s death, however, his empire collapsed... The state of affairs that that collapse created is known as feudalism."

Reflection Questions 

• What caused the pope to seek out new alliances? What new problems did Charlemagne's coronation create?
• According to Einhard, how did Charlemagne feel about being crowned emperor? Why is Einhard's report likely to be true?
• How did Charlemagne understand the relationship between church and state? On the whole, do you think the creation of "Christendom" was a positive or a negative development?

Further Resources

Click the link below to read the German biographer Einhard's eyewitness account of Charlemagne's coronation.

http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/coronation.html

8.3 - North & West

      Synopsis

The overall effect of the rise of Islam was to shift Christianity's center of gravity further north and further west. Missionary monks showed great creativity and skill in contextualizing the Gospel for people in faraway lands such as Kent (England), Saxony (Germany), and Russia. The encounters of these peoples with missionaries were raw, often dangerous, and occasionally hilarious. 

Key Quotes

• "In 596, King Ethelbert of Kent would only agree to meet with Pope Gregory’s envoy, Augustine, outside. The reason for this was that he had heard that Augustine had magical powers and could make tails grow on the backs of people who displeased him. He believed that being outside would neutralize Augustine’s powers. Ethelbert eventually became a Christian and remained tail-free for the rest of his life."
• "Boniface made quite the impression by chopping down the Saxons’ sacred oak and using its timber to build a chapel. Since this oak had been dedicated to Thor, the Saxons expected Boniface to drop dead at any moment. When he didn’t, many of them were so impressed that they became Christians."
• "Cyril and Methodius found success in the one direction that was not closed off to the Eastern Church by Muslim expansion: north, to the Slavic peoples on the great Eastern European plain. Since these peoples were illiterate, Cyril invented an alphabet (the Cyrillic alphabet, still used today in Russia) for them. His efforts were crucial to the survival of Eastern Orthodoxy."

Reflection Questions 

• Why did the West send out more missionaries than the East?
• How did Moscow become known as the "Third Rome"?
• What motivated Pope Gregory III to form an alliance with the Frankish government?

Further Resources

Click the link below to hear a Christmas reading from The Heliand, a narrative poem written by missionary monks that harmonized and contextualized the Gospel for the Saxon German culture.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRo_ioLmG_8

8.2 - The Emergence of Islam

     

Synopsis

Six years after the death of Gregory the Great, a Bedouin named Muhammad proclaimed a new monotheistic revelation to the tribesmen of Arabia, promising eternal life in exchange for holy war. By 750, adherents of the new religion of Islam had conquered from Spain to Afghanistan. Although military defeats at Constantinople in 672 and Tours in 732 contained Islam's expansion, the loss of much of the Mediterranean basin to hostile forces forced Christian missionary efforts to shift north and west. Western Europe became the new heartland of Christendom.

Key Quotes

• "According to Islam, no one can know with certainty whether they will be accepted into paradise until their deeds are weighed on the last day. Participating in jihad—“struggle”—against the enemies of Islam, however, greatly improves one’s chances. (N.B. Many Muslims interpret jihad as an internal struggle.)"
• “Muslim forces made deep advances into Frankish [French] territory until they were finally halted by Charles Martel (“the Hammer”), who drove them back across the Pyrenees Mountains into Spain, which they would continue to rule until shortly before the time of Christopher Columbus."
• "By 700, the once-solid North African church, which had produced leaders like Origen, Tertullian, and Augustine, had almost disappeared."

Reflection Questions 

• How did the collapse of the Roman Empire make the rise of Islam possible?
• How does Islam agree and how does it disagree with Christianity?
• What kind of treatment did Christians living in Muslim lands receive? What was the long-term effect of Islamic conquest on the church (both within & beyond the Islamic domain)?

Further Resources

Click the link below to read a transcript of a two-day debate between Caliph Mahdi and Timothy, the Christian patriarch of Baghdad. While it's a bit long, it will give you a good sense of how Christians sought to engage their Muslim conquerors and what objections Muslims had to Christian doctrine. 

http://www.syriacstudies.com/2017/11/30/the-apology-of-timothy-the-patriarch-before-the-caliph-mahdi/

8.1 - The Rise of the Medieval Papacy

    

Synopsis

Although he didn't want to be pope, through competent administration and warm pastoral care, Gregory developed the papacy into a politically powerful position. He also developed doctrines such as the intercession of saints, purgatory, the power of relics, and the Mass as a sacrifice. By tying the grace of God almost exclusively to actions only the church could perform, Gregory greatly strengthened the church as an institution and laid the theological groundwork for Roman Catholic dominance of European society during the Middle Ages.

Key Quotes

• "By the time Gregory became pope in 590, the authority of the papacy was a well-established fact. However, Gregory wielded that authority more effectively than anyone before him ever had. As historian Bruce Shelley writes, Gregory 'combined great executive ability with warm sympathy for human need.'"
• “Our holy martyrs are ready to be your advocates. They desire to be asked, indeed if I may say so, they entreat that they may be entreated. Seek them as helpers of your prayer; turn to them that they may protect you in your guilt.” (Gregory the Great)
• "In my opinion, it is difficult to find another person in church history who is simultaneously as goodhearted and as theologically misguided as Gregory the Great."

Reflection Questions 

• How did the office of the pope develop over time?
• How would you describe Gregory's personal character?
• What experience led Gregory to believe that masses said vicariously for believers in purgatory were effective? What would you say to someone who had a similar experience today?

Further Resources

To watch a short video about Gregory's classic "Book of Pastoral Rule," follow the link below.

https://www.crossway.org/articles/why-you-should-read-this-obscure-old-book-about-pastoral-ministry/

7.3 - Augustine of Hippo

   

"Late have I loved thee": After a misspent youth, Augustine of Hippo put his prodigious, redeemed intellect at the service of Christ's church. Thanks largely to the diligence of medieval monks, his 5,000,000-word body of work survived a barbarian invasion the fall of Rome, and the Dark Ages.

Synopsis

This lesson covers the other great example of monasticism's legacy: Augustine of Hippo, who was from the West. After a youth spent pursuing the pleasures of the flesh, Augustine had a dramatic conversion that answered his mother Monica's decades of prayer. For the remaining 40 years of his life, Augustine composed a staggering body of work that laid the theological groundwork for Western Christianity and served as a bridge between the classical and medieval eras.

Key Quotes

• "It cannot be that the son of such tears should perish." (A priest to Augustine's mother, Monica)
• "Augustine wrote voluminously and most of what he wrote has survived to the present day. Ironically, for someone who had just wanted a quiet monastic life, most of his writing either provoked controversy or was the result of great controversy. ... The longer Augustine lived, the more difficult the trials in his life became."
• “Augustine’s theology served as a bridge between the classical world and the Middle Ages. It cast a vision for a Christian society that would be in the world but not of it. Over the next few centuries, it would primarily be the monks who would carry this vision with them to the distant corners of Europe. Copying and recopying Augustine’s writings, they began the long, arduous process of evangelizing the barbarians and rebuilding Western civilization from the ground up.” 

Reflection Questions 

• How might Augustine's experience of a divided will early in life have informed his theology of grace?
• What was the heart of the Donatist controversy? What did Augustine say the validity of the sacraments depended on?
• What did Augustine mean by "City of Man" and "City of God"? Are these two terms exactly synonymous with "church" and "state"? Why or why not? 

Further Resources

To read the introduction to Augustine's first book, "The Confessions," follow the link below.

https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/172163/the-confessions-of-saint-augustine-by-st-augustine/9780385029551/excerpt

7.2 - The Legacy of Monasticism

  

John Chrysostom's ("golden mouth") reputation for preaching prompted the emperor to elevate him to the position of patriarch ("chief bishop") of Constantinople, the imperial capital. His scathing denunciations of the greed and injustice of Constantinople's wealthy later prompted the emperor to send him into exile.

Synopsis

Was monasticism a good thing for Christianity? Like any movement, it had its strengths and weaknesses but I argue that on the whole, it was good for the church and that its ultimate legacy was the quality of the leaders it produced. We spend most of the lesson profiling the first of two 5th-century leaders (one Eastern and one Western) who were influenced by monasticism: John Chrysostom.

Key Quotes

• "Perhaps the single greatest weakness of monasticism was that it promoted a two-tier system within the church. Ordinary laypeople who lived in the 'secular world' were seen as less spiritual than monks who devoted their entire lives to God and followed the 'higher calling' of chastity, poverty, and obedience." 
• "Perhaps the monastic movement’s most remarkable achievement, however, was the tremendous number of quality church leaders it produced. Nearly all of the major church leaders of the Constantinian and medieval eras were monks at some point in their lives."
• “The gold bit on your horse, the gold circlet on the wrist of your slave, the gilding on your shoes, mean that you are robbing the orphan and starving the widow. When you have passed away, each passer-by who looks upon your great mansion will say, ‘How many tears did it take to build that mansion; how many orphans were stripped; how many widows wronged; how many laborers deprived of their honest wages? Even death itself will not deliver you from your accusers.’” (John Chrysostom)

Reflection Questions 

• How was monasticism a good (or a bad) thing for the church?
• How did John's method of interpreting Scripture differ from others in his own day? 
• Have you ever heard a sermon in your local church like the one excerpted above? How would people in your local church be likely to react to it if it were preached to them?

Further Resources

John Chrysostom's first sermon

http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chrysostom_first_sermon.htm

7.1 - The Birth of Monasticism

 

Athanasius, who made Anthony of Alexandria famous by writing his biography, describes him as a miracle-worker who occasionally did battle with evil spirits disguised as wild beasts.

Synopsis

As the Roman Empire declined, the increasing worldliness of the imperial state church drove many disillusioned believers into the desert in search of true holiness. Anthony, the "father of monasticism," left a life of ease in Alexandria to dwell in desert caves, where he soon developed a following (much to his chagrin) and a reputation as a teacher, miracle worker, and battler of evil spirits. As monasticism spread (most notably through the work of Benedict of Nursia), it became more communal and less ascetic. By the 5th century, nearly every church leader of any significance had been a monk at one point or another in his life.

Key Quotes

• "In the past, Christian ministers had been willing to lay down their lives for the truth. Now, as Gregory of Nazianzus complained, 'The chief seat is gained by evil doing, not by virtue; and the [bishops’ seats] belong, not to the more worthy, but to the more powerful.' Needless to say, this turned a lot of people off." 
• "Monasticism began in the East, but it came to full flower in the West. Athanasius was the first to introduce it to the West during his exiles in Germany and Italy."
• "Benedict’s Rule provided a blueprint for monastic life. Since it was simple and reasonable, it could be replicated almost anywhere. ... By the year 1000, there was a Benedictine monastery in nearly every community in Western Europe."

Reflection Questions 

• What were some of the causes of monasticism? Do you think people would have sought holiness differently if the Roman Empire had not been in decline?
• How did monasteries end up becoming means of evangelism? What lessons could the contemporary church draw from this? 
• The Rule of Benedict demands absolute obedience from monks to their Abbot. What do you think the reason for this is? How would you cope in such circumstances yourself? Do you think it is a good discipline for those who can manage it, or completely unhealthy, or what?

Further Resources

To read excerpts from the Rule of Benedict in contemporary English, click the link below.
https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/benedicts-rule

6.3 - The Pelagian Controversy

Augustine of Hippo, a line from whose autobiography (“Grant what you command and command what you desire”) offended the British monk Pelagius and set off the Pelagian Controversy.

Synopsis

The third and last doctrinal controversy of the Constantinian era dealt with a more practical question: "Is man a sinner by nature or by choice?" The British monk Pelagius argued that God would never give a command unless man could obey it and thus each man is a new Adam. In response, Augustine of Hippo argued that Scripture teaches the doctrine of original sin--each of us have inherited a sinful nature from our forefather Adam. Thus, salvation must be by grace from start to finish. The church sided with Augustine in principle without ratifying every particular of his doctrine.

Key Quotes

• “Augustine’s famous phrase 'original sin' doesn’t refer to Adam and Eve’s original act of disobedience in the garden. Instead, it refers to the consequences that that first sin had upon the entire human race."
• “It is wholly a gift of God to love God.” (Synod of Orange, 529)
• "The debate over the exact relationship between divine sovereignty and human responsibility continues to the present day—Protestants know it as the Calvinist/Arminian debate—both sides can trace their theology back to Augustine." 

Reflection Questions 

• What do you think Pelagius would have said the point of Jesus' coming? 
• What do you think of Pelagius' "common sense" measure of responsibility for sin? ("We are not responsible for sinning unless we could have done otherwise.") What do you think Augustine would have said the true measure is?
• What question about Augustine's doctrine did the Council of Ephesus and Synod of Orange leave unanswered?

Further Resources

For a more in-depth look at Augustine's doctrines of original sin, grace, and predestination, here's a lecture by Dr. Bruce Gore, whose video series on church history I highly recommend.

6.2 - The Christological Controversy

  

Basil the Great stands with his brother Gregory of Nyssa and his classmate Gregory of Nazianzus, both of whom he recruited to help define and defend the doctrine of the Trinity. Basil himself was led to faith by his sister Macrina, whose life of service he sought to emulate.

Synopsis

After Athanasius' death, the Cappadocian Fathers helped push Trinitarianism across the finish line at the Council of Constantinople (381). Far from settling every dispute, however, the consensus that Jesus was God sparked new debates over the precise relationship between Christ's deity and humanity. In 451, the Council of Chalcedon crafted the definition that has endured ever since: Jesus is "the God-man:" one person with two distinct natures, 100% God and 100% man. 

Key Quotes

• “If you questioned a baker about the price of bread, he would answer that the Father is greater and the Son is subordinate to Him. If you went to take a bath, the bath attendant would tell you that in his opinion the Son simply comes from nothing.” (Gregory of Nyssa on Constantinople at the time of the Council)
• “What Christ has not assumed in our human nature cannot be redeemed.” (Gregory of Nazianzus)
• The Council of Chalcedon did not answer every conceivable question on how God can became man. However, it did erect a fence and say, 'Within these boundaries lies the mystery of the God-man.' That fence has endured to the present day."

Reflection Questions 

• While the Trinity was precisely formulated by Gregory of Nyssa (using ideas drawn from Tertullian), it has been said that to find the Trinity, we need only go to the Jordan (Matt. 3:16-17). What does that mean?
• What are the four errors concerning Christ's nature rejected by the Council of Chalcedon? How does each of these errant ideas undermine the Gospel?
• Does the Chalcedonian Definition improve our understanding or deepen the mystery of the "God-man"?

Further Resources

Here's a song I listened to a lot while writing this part of the course. It was inspired by a line from Gregory of Nyssa: "One who looks to this divine and infinite beauty…his desire to look never tires, for the revelations he awaits will be more magnificent and more divine than what he had already seen."

6.1 - The Arian Controversy

 

Athanasius of Alexandria, who spent most of his life in exile to preserve the doctrine of the Incarnation.

Synopsis

The Constantinian era saw the church assemble to hammer out careful answers to fundamental questions. The first controversy had to do with whether Christ was only the Son of God or God the Son as welll? When Constantine sided with the Arians, who taught that Jesus was not God, it looked like the end of the story and probably would have been had it not been for Athanasius. 

Key Quotes

• “Those who maintain that ‘There was a time when the Son was not’ rob God of his Word, like plunderers.” (Athanasius)
• “Jesus is 'God of God, light of light, true God of true God...begotten, not made.'” (Nicene Creed)
• “The story goes that when a group of soldiers caught up to Athanasius, they yelled over to his boat, 'Has anyone seen Athanasius?' 'Yes,' Athanasius replied truthfully. 'He is just ahead of you, and if you hurry you shall overtake him.' The soldiers, not knowing what their suspect looked like, followed his advice and sailed on by.”

Reflection Questions 

• How would you respond to those who would claim that the Nicene Creed is "imperial theology," foisted upon the church by Constantine?
• Is the epithet "Athanasius against the world" completely accurate? How was Athanasius able to sustain his resistance for 50 years? 
• Evangelicals often emphasize Jesus' death and resurrection. How does the Arian controversy teach us to value his life?

Further Reading

• C.S. Lewis' introduction to "On the Incarnation" by Athanasius
  https://www.bhmc.org.uk/uploads/9/1/7/7/91773502/lewis-incarnation-intro.pdf

5.2 - Converting the Barbarians

  A statue of St. Patrick at Croagh Patrick mountain, a Catholic pilgrimage site in Ireland.

Synopsis

In the long run, the Constantinian experiment failed--Christianity couldn't hold the Roman Empire together. As barbarians conquered the empire, however, Christianity slowly converted the barbarians. The lesson profiles several notable missionaries from this period, ending with the story of Saint Patrick.

Key Quotes

• “Let God’s mercy be praised, even if this has taken place through our own destruction." (Paulus Orosius)
• “Teaching Christian doctrine and ethics—let alone the heritage of classical civilization—to nomadic peoples emerging from centuries of illiteracy and extreme violence was no easy task."
• “The Gospel had once conquered the Roman Empire. Now, it had outlasted it..”

Reflection Questions 

• What did many Christians at the time believe God's purpose was in allowing pagans to conquer Rome?
• How did mass conversions differ from the evangelism we see in the book of Acts? Were there any benefits to them?
• How might the legend about Patrick driving the snakes out of Ireland reflect a deeper truth?

Further Reading

• Saint Patrick's Confessio. Read what he actually said in his own words.

5.1 - The Rise of Constantine

  

The Arch of Constantine in Rome, built to commemorate Constantine's victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, which led to Christianity becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Synopsis

In 312, Constantine won control of the Roman Empire "by the sign of the cross" and granted complete freedom of worship to Christians. We unpack what made such an astonishing turn of events possible, examine the evidence for and against the sincerity of Constantine's conversion, and list the positive and negative effects the Constantinian shift had on the church. We end by noting that the end of state persecution greatly accelerated the growth of monasticism.

Key Quotes

• “Almost overnight, Christianity went from being from an enemy of the state to being an arm of the state.”
• “Perhaps the most significant change Constantine made was to remove the idols of pagan gods from their temples and use them to decorate public parks... This sent a message that the old pagan gods were powerless and deserved no honor.”
• “[After the Constantinian Shift], the gospel preached often did not sound like good news to the poor. ... As a result, more and more Christians began to believe that it was no longer possible to pursue a life of true holiness within the church.”

Reflection Questions 

• How did the "Century of Revolution" make the Edict of Milan possible?
• How does the sincerity or insincerity of Constantine's conversion affect the legitimacy of his Christianization of the empire (or does it affect it at all)?
• What effect did the Constantinian shift have on the church's influence upon the state and the state's influence upon the church? In your view, which change was more significant?

Further Reading

• If you have a couple of hours, this Peter Leithart lecture at Wheaton College is worth your time. Leithart's 2010 book, "Defending Constantine," bucks the trend of most contemporary scholarship, which is anti-Constantinian.

4.3 - Doctors of the Faith

 

Statue of Irenaeus sculpted by Carl Rohl-Smith, Frederikskirken, Copenhagen, Denmark

Synopsis

Creeds, the New Testament canon, and apostolic succession gave the church a full medicine chest of antidotes to heresy, but medicine has to be administered by doctors and false doctrine must be countered by skilled teachers. In this lesson, we examine "doctors of the faith" who rose to the task in the 2nd & 3rd centuries: Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian of Carthage, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria.

Key Quotes

• “The Son of God became man so that man might become the son of God.” (Irenaeus)
• “We should not ask what God can do but what He has, in fact, done.” (Tertullian)
• “The way of truth is one. But into it, as into a perennial river, streams flow from all sides.” (Clement)
• "Origen might be the only person ever to be declared a heretic and get a line into one of the creeds."

Reflection Questions 

• What was the appeal of the Gnostic idea that matter is evil to people in the ancient world? How did Irenaeus counter it?
• How did Tertullian's attitude to philosophy contrast with Clement and Origen's approach?
• What should we think about Origen's habit of using philosophy to go beyond Scripture? Is it ever right to use other means of knowledge to go beyond what Scripture says?

Further Reading

• One of my favorite books, "God in Dispute" by Roger Olson, a series of imagined conversations between great thinkers in Christian history, is available for free online. If you click the link below, I recommend you then click "Search inside" and scroll down to Chapter 2, which imagines a conversation between Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement.
  https://www.google.com/books/edition/God_in_Dispute/wtJ9h1vCw_oC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=irenaeus

4.2 - Orthodoxy

The Muratorian Fragment (or Canon), an ancient manuscript that contains a list of New Testament books.

Synopsis

The threat of heresy caused the early church to circle the wagons. In addition to becoming more hierarchical, the church developed three important tools with which to fight heresy: creeds, the New Testament canon, and the idea of apostolic succession. We examine each in detail.

Key Quotes

• "Every line in the Apostles' Creed is meant to be a guardrail against the heresies of the day."
• "The earliest canonical list that we have is the Muratorian Canon, which dates to about A.D. 180 and lists 22 of the 27 books in our New Testament."
• "In the 2nd century, 'apostolic succession' meant that unless a person's gospel was the gospel transmitted publicly by the apostles to the bishops, that person was a heretic."

Reflection Questions 

• What did the word "catholic" mean in the context of 2nd-century debates against Gnostics? 
• What criteria did the early church use when determining which writings ought to be canonized? What was the most important criterion?
• How would you respond to claims that "the early Christians didn't have a Bible" or that "Constantine chose the books of the New Testament"?

Further Reading

• Michael Kruger (professor at Reformed Theological Seminary), "Ten Basic Facts About the NT Canon that Every Christian Should Memorize" 
  https://www.michaeljkruger.com/the-complete-series-ten-basic-facts-about-the-nt-canon-that-every-christian-should-memorize/

4.1 - Heresy

 

Marcion of Sinope, considered the "arch-heretic" by the early church

Synopsis

In contrast to the external threat of persecution, heresy threatened to sicken and kill the church from within. Notable heresies of the 2nd-3rd centuries include Gnosticism, Marcionism, and Montanism. Ultimately, heresy strengthened orthodoxy by forcing the church to defend and clarify its beliefs.

Key Quotes

• "Christian Gnostics often taught that Jesus had only entrusted his true message (which had been too advanced for most of his disciples to understand) to one of his apostles."
• "Marcion separated himself from the Gnostic pack by developing a theology that was not only anti-material but also anti-Jewish."
• "Along with Marcionism, Montanism helped spur the church toward the creation of a New Testament canon that could serve as the final authority in matters of faith and practice."

Reflection Questions 

• How did Gnostics explain the fact that their gospels differed significantly from the apostolic gospel? 
• How did Marcion explain away the Hebrew Scriptures and New Testament writings that contradicted his interpretations?
• What need in the early church was Montanism trying to fill? What lessons could modern-day charismatics draw from their example?

Further Reading

• "The Gospel of Thomas" 
  http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/thomas-anon.html

3.3 - The Apologists

A Greek Orthodox icon of Justin Martyr (A.D. 100-165)

Synopsis

Since persecution was usually local, the perception of Christians in a local area could make a significant difference. As such, apologists arose to make the case for Christian faith and tolerance of the Christian religion. Two apologists (Justin Martyr, Tertullian of Carthage) are profiled in detail.

Key Quotes

• “No man in his right mind turns back to falsehood once he has seen the truth.” (Justin Martyr)

• “We are but of yesterday, yet we have filled all that is yours: cities...towns, meeting places...we have left you only your temples... [but] we conquer in dying; we seize the victory at the very moment we are overcome. ... Your cruelty, however great, is a better advertisement for us than for you. The more you mow us down, the more we grow. The blood of Christians is seed. (Tertullian of Carthage)

• “Christians are no different from the rest in their nationality, language or customs. ... They fulfill all their duties as citizens, but they suffer as foreigners. ... They live on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey all laws, but they live at a level higher than that required by law. They love all, but all persecute them.” (To Diognetus)

Reflection Questions 

• What did Justin think was the relationship between Greek philosophy and Christian revelation?
• What might account for the difference in tone toward Greco-Roman culture between Justin and later apologists like Tertullian and Tatian?
• What are the tensions 2nd-3rd century Christians faced between their faith and Greco-Roman culture? What tensions do Christians face in the context in which you live today? 

Further Reading

• "The Letter to Diognetus" (with context that makes it easier to understand)
  https://www.christian-history.org/letter-to-diognetus.html

3.2 - From Nero to Diocletian

A 20th-century imaginative rendering of Perpetua and Felicity

Synopsis

The history of persecution is surveyed from Nero in the mid-1st century to Diocletian's "Great Persecution" in the early 4th century. The martyrdoms of Ignatius and Perpetua and Felicity are recounted in detail. Emperor Constantine finally puts an end to persecution in 313 by granting Christians complete freedom of worship. 

Key Quotes

• “Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic (universal) Church.” (Ignatius)

• "In a detail that rings true, Felicity helped Perpetua tie her hair back so she wouldn’t look like a woman in mourning when she died."

• "Christians were rarely executed merely for being Christian, but rather for converting or being Christian leaders. The first empire-wide persecution did not occur until 250 under Emperor Decius."

• "During the Great Persecution, Roman prisons were so overcrowded with Christians, there was nowhere to put regular criminals."

Reflection Questions 

• What does Ignatius' emphasis upon loyalty to the bishops tell us about the attitude of the early church toward the importance of doctrine?
• How do you think the martyrdom story of Perpetua and Felicity was intended to influence Christian believers at the time it began to circulate? 
• What was the heart of the controversy between Cyprian and Novatian? What side would you have been on?

Further Reading

• "The Seven Letters of Ignatius of Antioch"
  https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=3836

• "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity"
  https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/primary/perpetua.html

3.1 - The Reasons for Persecution

Martyrdom of Polycarp

Synopsis

Many early Christians endured horrific persecution. However, persecution tended to be a local, temporary phenomenon and Romans weren't one-dimensional villains. To understand persecution, we have to understand its political, social, economic, and religious aspects.

Key Quotes

• “You try to frighten me with fire that burns for an hour, and you forget the fire of hell that never goes out.”
• "Spiritually speaking, Christians were seen as 'disturbing the peace' because they refused to give the gods their proper honor. ... As Tertullian wrote, “if the Tiber overflows or the Nile doesn’t, the cry goes up: Christians to the lions.”
• "Although people from every social class converted to Christianity, the faith always held particular appeal for marginalized people (such as slaves or women)."

Reflection Questions 

• What was the significance of the emperor cult to Romans of this era? 
• From the Roman perspective, how were Christians "haters of the human race"?
• If, as Tertullian wrote, the early church had "the reputation of living aloof from crowds," what do you think drove its rapid growth?

Further Reading

• "The Martyrdom of Polycarp"
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/polycarp

2.2 - The Church in a Gentile World

Emperor Nero (64-68 AD)

Synopsis

During the 1st century, Christians endure two waves of persecution: one under Emperor Nero and another under Emperor Domitian. By the early 2nd century, Rome considers Christianity a separate religion from Judaism, a threat to public order. Persecution of Christians becomes official imperial policy, but the church continues to grow

Key Quotes

• "Nero’s tactics were so extreme that even Romans who believed Christians deserved to die came to pity them." 
• "Unlike Nero, Domitian wasn't seeking a scapegoat. Instead, he sought to force Christians to participate in the emperor cult, which involved offering sacrifices to him as a god."
• "Christianity...was seen as an upstart religion that worshiped a man the Roman government had put to death for sedition. It ascribed titles to this man—'King,' 'Savior,' and 'Lord'—that Caesar claimed for himself."

Reflection Questions 

• How did the two waves of persecution in the 1st century differ from one another?
• What does the correspondence of Emperor Trajan and Governor Pliny reveal about the way the Roman government perceived Christians?
• How would you characterize the tone of the prayer quoted at the end of the lesson? What does it tell us about the mindset of early Christians?

Further Reading

• Tacitus, Annals, 15.44
  https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/15B*.html 
• Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 15.4
  http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html 
• Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/pliny 
• The Didache
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/didache

2.1 - Hebrews & Hellenists

Synopsis

After Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, the Jesus movement spreads like wildfire throughout the Roman Empire. A rift develops between Hebrews and Hellenists over circumcision. Missionary expansion and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 makes Christianity a majority-Gentile movement.

Key Quotes

• “Awe came upon everyone because many wonders and signs were being done by the apostles.” (Luke, Acts of the Apostles)
• “The issue of circumcision became a point of conflict between more traditional Jewish Christians in Jerusalem and the more heavily Gentile congregation in Antioch.”
• “Since the destruction of Jerusalem happened exactly 40 years—Passover to Passover—after Jesus’ crucifixion, Christians saw it as God's judgment on the Jewish people for rejecting their Messiah ...”

Reflection Questions 

• What kind of opposition did the early church encounter from the Jewish religious establishment and the Roman state?
• What did the Jerusalem council decide on the question of circumcision? How did it reach its conclusion? (Acts 15)
• How did the destruction of Jerusalem by Rome in A.D. 70 make Christianity a predominantly Gentile movement?

Further Reading

• Fuller Seminary, “The Hellenistic Widows”

1.2 - History Up to Jesus

Synopsis

This lesson provides a quick overview of the Old Testament and Intertestamental period. The church age is a continuation of the story of the people of God

Key Quotes

• "Since the Creation and the Fall take up only the first three chapters of Genesis, it’s helpful to organize God’s work of redemption by the major covenants that God makes with key figures in the Old Testament."
• "The world into which Jesus (and later the church) was born was a world in which new ideas could spread relatively easily with astonishing speed."
• "The only thing that made Jesus’ death remarkable, historically speaking, was what happened next."

Reflection Questions

• What does it mean that Jesus was born in the "fullness of time" (Gal. 4:4)? How would the early days of the church have been different had Jesus been born either before or after the Greco-Roman era?
• We've defined church history as "the story of the spread of the influence of Jesus." What does it add to the story to see it as a continuation of the story of the people of God?
• In what ways does the nation in which you live remind you of its history and your place within that story? In what ways does your church do the same for you as a Kingdom citizen? 

Further Reading

• N.T. Wright, "How Can the Bible Be Authoritative?"

1.1 - What Is Church History?

Synopsis

This lesson provides a working definition of church history and gives three reasons why studying the history of this influence is worthwhile:

1. It humbles us.
   
2. It gives us hope.
   
3. It grounds us in our identity as Kingdom citizens.

Key Quotes

• "No fact of history is more amazing than that Jesus' influence spread at all." (Kenneth Scott Latourette)
• "The spread of Jesus' influence has been like the tide. Like the tide it has moved forward in waves. Each major wave has been followed by a major recession. But each major wave has set a new high-water mark and each major recession has been less pronounced than its predecessor." (Kenneth Scott Latourette)
• "If you don't know your history, you don't know where you're coming from." (Bob Marley)

Reflection Questions

1. What difference does it make to frame church history as "the spread of Jesus' influence" rather than "the spread of Christianity" or "the spread of the church"? 
2. In the article linked to above, Latourette asks, "Do patterns exist in history?" What would a Christian answer to this question be?
3. How is the study of church history personally meaningful to you?

Further Reading

• Kenneth Scott Latourette, "The Christian Understanding of History."