5.1 - The Rise of Constantine

  

The Arch of Constantine in Rome, built to commemorate Constantine's victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, which led to Christianity becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Synopsis

In 312, Constantine won control of the Roman Empire "by the sign of the cross" and granted complete freedom of worship to Christians. We unpack what made such an astonishing turn of events possible, examine the evidence for and against the sincerity of Constantine's conversion, and list the positive and negative effects the Constantinian shift had on the church. We end by noting that the end of state persecution greatly accelerated the growth of monasticism.

Key Quotes

• “Almost overnight, Christianity went from being from an enemy of the state to being an arm of the state.”
• “Perhaps the most significant change Constantine made was to remove the idols of pagan gods from their temples and use them to decorate public parks... This sent a message that the old pagan gods were powerless and deserved no honor.”
• “[After the Constantinian Shift], the gospel preached often did not sound like good news to the poor. ... As a result, more and more Christians began to believe that it was no longer possible to pursue a life of true holiness within the church.”

Reflection Questions 

• How did the "Century of Revolution" make the Edict of Milan possible?
• How does the sincerity or insincerity of Constantine's conversion affect the legitimacy of his Christianization of the empire (or does it affect it at all)?
• What effect did the Constantinian shift have on the church's influence upon the state and the state's influence upon the church? In your view, which change was more significant?

Further Reading

• If you have a couple of hours, this Peter Leithart lecture at Wheaton College is worth your time. Leithart's 2010 book, "Defending Constantine," bucks the trend of most contemporary scholarship, which is anti-Constantinian.

4.3 - Doctors of the Faith

 

Statue of Irenaeus sculpted by Carl Rohl-Smith, Frederikskirken, Copenhagen, Denmark

Synopsis

Creeds, the New Testament canon, and apostolic succession gave the church a full medicine chest of antidotes to heresy, but medicine has to be administered by doctors and false doctrine must be countered by skilled teachers. In this lesson, we examine "doctors of the faith" who rose to the task in the 2nd & 3rd centuries: Irenaeus of Lyons, Tertullian of Carthage, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen of Alexandria.

Key Quotes

• “The Son of God became man so that man might become the son of God.” (Irenaeus)
• “We should not ask what God can do but what He has, in fact, done.” (Tertullian)
• “The way of truth is one. But into it, as into a perennial river, streams flow from all sides.” (Clement)
• "Origen might be the only person ever to be declared a heretic and get a line into one of the creeds."

Reflection Questions 

• What was the appeal of the Gnostic idea that matter is evil to people in the ancient world? How did Irenaeus counter it?
• How did Tertullian's attitude to philosophy contrast with Clement and Origen's approach?
• What should we think about Origen's habit of using philosophy to go beyond Scripture? Is it ever right to use other means of knowledge to go beyond what Scripture says?

Further Reading

• One of my favorite books, "God in Dispute" by Roger Olson, a series of imagined conversations between great thinkers in Christian history, is available for free online. If you click the link below, I recommend you then click "Search inside" and scroll down to Chapter 2, which imagines a conversation between Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Clement.
  https://www.google.com/books/edition/God_in_Dispute/wtJ9h1vCw_oC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=irenaeus

4.2 - Orthodoxy

The Muratorian Fragment (or Canon), an ancient manuscript that contains a list of New Testament books.

Synopsis

The threat of heresy caused the early church to circle the wagons. In addition to becoming more hierarchical, the church developed three important tools with which to fight heresy: creeds, the New Testament canon, and the idea of apostolic succession. We examine each in detail.

Key Quotes

• "Every line in the Apostles' Creed is meant to be a guardrail against the heresies of the day."
• "The earliest canonical list that we have is the Muratorian Canon, which dates to about A.D. 180 and lists 22 of the 27 books in our New Testament."
• "In the 2nd century, 'apostolic succession' meant that unless a person's gospel was the gospel transmitted publicly by the apostles to the bishops, that person was a heretic."

Reflection Questions 

• What did the word "catholic" mean in the context of 2nd-century debates against Gnostics? 
• What criteria did the early church use when determining which writings ought to be canonized? What was the most important criterion?
• How would you respond to claims that "the early Christians didn't have a Bible" or that "Constantine chose the books of the New Testament"?

Further Reading

• Michael Kruger (professor at Reformed Theological Seminary), "Ten Basic Facts About the NT Canon that Every Christian Should Memorize" 
  https://www.michaeljkruger.com/the-complete-series-ten-basic-facts-about-the-nt-canon-that-every-christian-should-memorize/

4.1 - Heresy

 

Marcion of Sinope, considered the "arch-heretic" by the early church

Synopsis

In contrast to the external threat of persecution, heresy threatened to sicken and kill the church from within. Notable heresies of the 2nd-3rd centuries include Gnosticism, Marcionism, and Montanism. Ultimately, heresy strengthened orthodoxy by forcing the church to defend and clarify its beliefs.

Key Quotes

• "Christian Gnostics often taught that Jesus had only entrusted his true message (which had been too advanced for most of his disciples to understand) to one of his apostles."
• "Marcion separated himself from the Gnostic pack by developing a theology that was not only anti-material but also anti-Jewish."
• "Along with Marcionism, Montanism helped spur the church toward the creation of a New Testament canon that could serve as the final authority in matters of faith and practice."

Reflection Questions 

• How did Gnostics explain the fact that their gospels differed significantly from the apostolic gospel? 
• How did Marcion explain away the Hebrew Scriptures and New Testament writings that contradicted his interpretations?
• What need in the early church was Montanism trying to fill? What lessons could modern-day charismatics draw from their example?

Further Reading

• "The Gospel of Thomas" 
  http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/thomas-anon.html

3.3 - The Apologists

A Greek Orthodox icon of Justin Martyr (A.D. 100-165)

Synopsis

Since persecution was usually local, the perception of Christians in a local area could make a significant difference. As such, apologists arose to make the case for Christian faith and tolerance of the Christian religion. Two apologists (Justin Martyr, Tertullian of Carthage) are profiled in detail.

Key Quotes

• “No man in his right mind turns back to falsehood once he has seen the truth.” (Justin Martyr)

• “We are but of yesterday, yet we have filled all that is yours: cities...towns, meeting places...we have left you only your temples... [but] we conquer in dying; we seize the victory at the very moment we are overcome. ... Your cruelty, however great, is a better advertisement for us than for you. The more you mow us down, the more we grow. The blood of Christians is seed. (Tertullian of Carthage)

• “Christians are no different from the rest in their nationality, language or customs. ... They fulfill all their duties as citizens, but they suffer as foreigners. ... They live on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey all laws, but they live at a level higher than that required by law. They love all, but all persecute them.” (To Diognetus)

Reflection Questions 

• What did Justin think was the relationship between Greek philosophy and Christian revelation?
• What might account for the difference in tone toward Greco-Roman culture between Justin and later apologists like Tertullian and Tatian?
• What are the tensions 2nd-3rd century Christians faced between their faith and Greco-Roman culture? What tensions do Christians face in the context in which you live today? 

Further Reading

• "The Letter to Diognetus" (with context that makes it easier to understand)
  https://www.christian-history.org/letter-to-diognetus.html

3.2 - From Nero to Diocletian

A 20th-century imaginative rendering of Perpetua and Felicity

Synopsis

The history of persecution is surveyed from Nero in the mid-1st century to Diocletian's "Great Persecution" in the early 4th century. The martyrdoms of Ignatius and Perpetua and Felicity are recounted in detail. Emperor Constantine finally puts an end to persecution in 313 by granting Christians complete freedom of worship. 

Key Quotes

• “Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic (universal) Church.” (Ignatius)

• "In a detail that rings true, Felicity helped Perpetua tie her hair back so she wouldn’t look like a woman in mourning when she died."

• "Christians were rarely executed merely for being Christian, but rather for converting or being Christian leaders. The first empire-wide persecution did not occur until 250 under Emperor Decius."

• "During the Great Persecution, Roman prisons were so overcrowded with Christians, there was nowhere to put regular criminals."

Reflection Questions 

• What does Ignatius' emphasis upon loyalty to the bishops tell us about the attitude of the early church toward the importance of doctrine?
• How do you think the martyrdom story of Perpetua and Felicity was intended to influence Christian believers at the time it began to circulate? 
• What was the heart of the controversy between Cyprian and Novatian? What side would you have been on?

Further Reading

• "The Seven Letters of Ignatius of Antioch"
  https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=3836

• "The Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicity"
  https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/primary/perpetua.html

3.1 - The Reasons for Persecution

Martyrdom of Polycarp

Synopsis

Many early Christians endured horrific persecution. However, persecution tended to be a local, temporary phenomenon and Romans weren't one-dimensional villains. To understand persecution, we have to understand its political, social, economic, and religious aspects.

Key Quotes

• “You try to frighten me with fire that burns for an hour, and you forget the fire of hell that never goes out.”
• "Spiritually speaking, Christians were seen as 'disturbing the peace' because they refused to give the gods their proper honor. ... As Tertullian wrote, “if the Tiber overflows or the Nile doesn’t, the cry goes up: Christians to the lions.”
• "Although people from every social class converted to Christianity, the faith always held particular appeal for marginalized people (such as slaves or women)."

Reflection Questions 

• What was the significance of the emperor cult to Romans of this era? 
• From the Roman perspective, how were Christians "haters of the human race"?
• If, as Tertullian wrote, the early church had "the reputation of living aloof from crowds," what do you think drove its rapid growth?

Further Reading

• "The Martyrdom of Polycarp"
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/polycarp

2.2 - The Church in a Gentile World

Emperor Nero (64-68 AD)

Synopsis

During the 1st century, Christians endure two waves of persecution: one under Emperor Nero and another under Emperor Domitian. By the early 2nd century, Rome considers Christianity a separate religion from Judaism, a threat to public order. Persecution of Christians becomes official imperial policy, but the church continues to grow

Key Quotes

• "Nero’s tactics were so extreme that even Romans who believed Christians deserved to die came to pity them." 
• "Unlike Nero, Domitian wasn't seeking a scapegoat. Instead, he sought to force Christians to participate in the emperor cult, which involved offering sacrifices to him as a god."
• "Christianity...was seen as an upstart religion that worshiped a man the Roman government had put to death for sedition. It ascribed titles to this man—'King,' 'Savior,' and 'Lord'—that Caesar claimed for himself."

Reflection Questions 

• How did the two waves of persecution in the 1st century differ from one another?
• What does the correspondence of Emperor Trajan and Governor Pliny reveal about the way the Roman government perceived Christians?
• How would you characterize the tone of the prayer quoted at the end of the lesson? What does it tell us about the mindset of early Christians?

Further Reading

• Tacitus, Annals, 15.44
  https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/15B*.html 
• Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 15.4
  http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html 
• Correspondence of Pliny and Trajan
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/pliny 
• The Didache
  https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/study/module/didache

2.1 - Hebrews & Hellenists

Synopsis

After Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, the Jesus movement spreads like wildfire throughout the Roman Empire. A rift develops between Hebrews and Hellenists over circumcision. Missionary expansion and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 makes Christianity a majority-Gentile movement.

Key Quotes

• “Awe came upon everyone because many wonders and signs were being done by the apostles.” (Luke, Acts of the Apostles)
• “The issue of circumcision became a point of conflict between more traditional Jewish Christians in Jerusalem and the more heavily Gentile congregation in Antioch.”
• “Since the destruction of Jerusalem happened exactly 40 years—Passover to Passover—after Jesus’ crucifixion, Christians saw it as God's judgment on the Jewish people for rejecting their Messiah ...”

Reflection Questions 

• What kind of opposition did the early church encounter from the Jewish religious establishment and the Roman state?
• What did the Jerusalem council decide on the question of circumcision? How did it reach its conclusion? (Acts 15)
• How did the destruction of Jerusalem by Rome in A.D. 70 make Christianity a predominantly Gentile movement?

Further Reading

• Fuller Seminary, “The Hellenistic Widows”

1.2 - History Up to Jesus

Synopsis

This lesson provides a quick overview of the Old Testament and Intertestamental period. The church age is a continuation of the story of the people of God

Key Quotes

• "Since the Creation and the Fall take up only the first three chapters of Genesis, it’s helpful to organize God’s work of redemption by the major covenants that God makes with key figures in the Old Testament."
• "The world into which Jesus (and later the church) was born was a world in which new ideas could spread relatively easily with astonishing speed."
• "The only thing that made Jesus’ death remarkable, historically speaking, was what happened next."

Reflection Questions

• What does it mean that Jesus was born in the "fullness of time" (Gal. 4:4)? How would the early days of the church have been different had Jesus been born either before or after the Greco-Roman era?
• We've defined church history as "the story of the spread of the influence of Jesus." What does it add to the story to see it as a continuation of the story of the people of God?
• In what ways does the nation in which you live remind you of its history and your place within that story? In what ways does your church do the same for you as a Kingdom citizen? 

Further Reading

• N.T. Wright, "How Can the Bible Be Authoritative?"

1.1 - What Is Church History?

Synopsis

This lesson provides a working definition of church history and gives three reasons why studying the history of this influence is worthwhile:

1. It humbles us.
   
2. It gives us hope.
   
3. It grounds us in our identity as Kingdom citizens.

Key Quotes

• "No fact of history is more amazing than that Jesus' influence spread at all." (Kenneth Scott Latourette)
• "The spread of Jesus' influence has been like the tide. Like the tide it has moved forward in waves. Each major wave has been followed by a major recession. But each major wave has set a new high-water mark and each major recession has been less pronounced than its predecessor." (Kenneth Scott Latourette)
• "If you don't know your history, you don't know where you're coming from." (Bob Marley)

Reflection Questions

1. What difference does it make to frame church history as "the spread of Jesus' influence" rather than "the spread of Christianity" or "the spread of the church"? 
2. In the article linked to above, Latourette asks, "Do patterns exist in history?" What would a Christian answer to this question be?
3. How is the study of church history personally meaningful to you?

Further Reading

• Kenneth Scott Latourette, "The Christian Understanding of History."